18th century Literature

18^th century is the longest period in English literature history. It has has number of events happening at that time.

Three major events took place in 18^th century:

1.       American revolution      

2.       French revolution

3.       Industrial revolution ( age of enlightenment)

Among all the three revolutions Industrial revolution holds the maximum importance in the characterisation of this century.  The Eighteenth Century in England is called by different names such as: the Classical Age or the Augustan Age in literature and also called the Age of Good Sense or the Age of Reason.

The Eighteenth Century is called the Classical Age in English literature on account of three reasons:

In the first place, the term ‘classic’, refers in general, applies to writers of the highest rank in any nation. This term was first applied to the works of the great Greek and Roman writers, like Homer and Virgil. As the writers of the eighteenth century in England tried to follow the simple and noble methods of the great ancient writers, they began to be called Classical writers.

 In the second place, in every national literature there is a period when a large number of writers produce works of great merit; such a period is often called the Classical Period or Age. For example, the reign of Augustus is called the Classical Age of Rome; and the Age of Dante is called the Classical Age of Italian literature. As during the eighteenth century in England there was an abundance of literary productions, the critics named it the Classical Age in English literature.

 In the third place, during this period the English writers rebelled against the exaggerated and fantastic style of writing prevalent during the Elizabethan and Puritan ages, and they demanded that poetry, drama and prose should follow exact rules. In this they were influenced by French writers, especially by Boileau and Rapin, who insisted on precise methods of writing poetry, and who professed to have discovered their rules in the classics of Horace and Aristotle.

As the term Classical Age is, therefore, too dignified for writers of the eighteenth century in England, who imitated only the outward trapping of the ancient classical writers, and could not get at their inner spirit, this age is preferably called the Augustan Age. This term was chosen by the writers of the eighteenth century themselves, who saw in Pope, Addison, Swift, Johnson and Burke the modern parallels to Horace, Virgil, Cicero, and other brilliant writers who made Roman literature famous during the reign of Emperor Augustus.

The eighteenth century is also called the Age of Reason or the Age of Good Sense, because the people thought that they could stand on their own legs and be guided in the conduct of their affairs by the light of their own reason unclouded by respect for Ancient precedent. They began to think that undue respect for authority of the Ancients was a great source of error, and therefore in every matter man should apply his own reason and common sense. Every man becomes his own philosopher. In 18th century not many people went to church.

In the previous ages which we have dealt with, it were the poetical works which were given prominence. Now, for the first time in the history of English literature, prose occupies the front position. As it was the age of social, political religious and literary controversies in which the prominent writers took an active part, and a large number of pamphlets, journals and magazines were brought out in order to cater to the growing need of the masses who had begun to read and take interest in these controversial matters, poetry was considered inadequate for such a task, and hence there was a rapid development of prose.

The two main characteristics of the Restoration period—Realism and Precision—were carried to further perfection during the eighteenth century. They are found in their excellent form in the poetry of Pope, who perfected the heroic couplet, and in the prose of Addison who developed it into a clear, precise and elegant form of expression.

 Another characteristic of this age was the development of satire as a form of literature, which resulted from the unfortunate union of politics with literature. The wings and the Tories—members of two important political parties which were constantly contending to control the government of the country—used and rewarded the writers for satirising their enemies and undermining their reputation. Moreover, as a satire is concerned mainly with finding fault with the opponents.

  Another important feature of this age was the origin and development of the novel. This new literary form, which gained great popularity in the succeeding ages, and which at present holds the prominent place, was fed and nourished by great masters like Defoe, Richardson, Fielding, Smollet and others who laid its secure foundations. The realism of the age and the development of an excellent prose style greatly helped in the evolution of the novel during the eighteenth century. Also first English dictionary by Samuel jhonsons came in 1755.

I Did Not Ask For It.

Knock knock.

It has been talked about day after day.

But this time I hope you actually hear.

Knock knock, it is about rape.

Since the days of nursery I am draped in fragile pink. The choice was never mien, but this is how it was meant to be.

Oooh pretty little girl keep your hands off the mud and those current carrying wires. Ooooh pretty little girl did you get hurt?

Yes I was hurt.

Why did you not think, if the pretty girl who was no more little, was hurt, when you ripped off her dress and thrust inside her without any rest.

You return, thinking it was your right.

The pink colour choice was never mien, then how can I expect you to ask me if I wanted to join.

The rapes have been happening, and the people have convinced themselves that it was she who asked for it.

Did her walk, her talk, her short skirt, her visible breast, her red lipstick, her open hair, her clothes layers, her curvy waist ask for being raped?

Oooooh pretty girl. You in full sleeves clothes, hair in braid and flat chest have also been raped.

Destiny of Draupadi

Draupadi – the princess of panchala, the uninvited child, did not have the conventional upbringing. Though everybody in the palace including her father and Dhai Ma tried their best to teach her the tasks, a girl is expected to be efficient in. Her brother, Dhri was a constant support to her. Dhri talked to her about the matters, others would never have. Soon the time arrived when Draupadi was to be married. Unlike other girls she was given the chance to select her better half, in the swayamvar being organised by her father. The final decision was though left to the fate, as only few could complete the task at the swayamvar.

Draupadi from the time of her birth was being prepared for the situations which were to come in her life ahead. While she was being acquainted with the kings, who were to come to her swayamvar; she was hoplessely attracted to the portrait of karna (the king of Anga, the chariot son). Seeing such desires in the eyes of Draupadi for karna, infuriated Krishna. Draupadi says:

                                            “ Heat rose to my face. Did Krishna want to be one of my suitors? I’d never thought of that possibility. All these years he’d been to me as the air I breathed—indispensable and unconsidered. But today I sensed that there was more to him than the jesting self he’d chosen, until now, to reveal to me. This new Krishna, his eyes stern with anger, his voice like an arrow—I was certain he could pass the swayamvar test if he wished it.

How would it be to have him as my husband? An uneasiness rose in me as I turned the thought around in my mind. I loved him— but not in that way.”

Later she was shown the portraits of pandva brothers. Draupadi had no say in the decisions of her life. It was all destined. Moreover everybody around made sure that her decisions move her towards her predefined destiny. Draupadi says:

          How I longed to speak to Dhai Ma of that other, forbidden name: Karna.

Draupadi’s eyes always searched for karna, even after marrying to the five pandvas. She left no opportunity to have a look at him. Though such feelings were never reciprocated by karna. Draupadi favoured Arjun the most among five pandavs but carried more affection for Karna. Though this affection for Karna was never made public. We could say that the destiny presented her Arjun but her choice would have been Karna, if she was given a chance to decide.

Resourse: the pallace of illusion by Chitra Lekha and Banerjee Divakaruni

The Restoration Period (1660-1700)

·         In 1660, when Charles II came to the throne, there was complete repudiation of the puritan ideals and the way of living. In English literature the period from 1660 to 1700 is called the period of restoration, because monarchy was restored in England, and Charles II, the son of Charles I who had been defeated and beheaded, came back to England from his exile in France and became the king.

·         All restraints and discipline were thrown to the winds, and a wave of licentiousness and frivolity swept the country. Charles II and his followers who had enjoyed a gay life in France during their exile, did their best to introduce that type of foppery and looseness in England also. Instead of having Shakespeare and the Elizabethans as their models, and the poets and dramatists of the restoration period began to imitate French writers and especially their vices.

·         No major work was produced. But then was introduced realism and a tendency to preciseness.

·         In the beginning realism took an ugly shape, because the writers painted the real pictures of the corrupt society and court. They were more concerned with the vices rather that with the virtues. The result was a coarse and inferior type of literature. Later this tendency to realism became more wholesome, and the writers tried to portray realistically human life as they found it- it is good as well as bad side, it internal as well as external shape.

·         The restoration writers, under the influence of French writers gave emphasis to reasoning rather than romantic fancy, and evolved and exact precise way of writing, consisting of short, clear-cut sentences without any unnecessary word.

·         The royal society also known as Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. It was set up in 1660 in Britain. The group was basically formed for scientific studies. Scholars like Einstein and Newton and were part of this group.

·         Comedy of manners. This genre of comedy flourished in restoration period in England. It is a play, novel, or film that gives a satirical portrayal of behaviour in a particular social group. The writers use satiric tone and witty dialogues, to show baselessness of a particular class or society (generally used for upper-class).

·         In tragedy, the restoration period specialised in heroic tragedy, which dealt with themes of epic magnitude. The heroes and heroines possessed superhuman qualities. The purpose of this tragedy was didactic- to inculcate virtues in the shape of bravery and conjugal love. It was written in the ‘heroic couplet’ in accordance with the heroic convention derived from France that ‘ heroic metre’ should be used in such plays.in it declamation took the place of natural dialogue. Moreover, it was characterised by bombast on the observations of life, there was no realistic characterisation, and it inevitably ended happily and virtue was always rewarded.

Could You Please Adjust?

A while ago, I happened to talk to one of my school friend. Somewhere in our conversation, we started to talk about- how our entire life is a compromise. Pause the work you are doing, for few seconds and think about yourself and people around you. Do not be surprised to find, that everybody you can think of is compromising on something or the other. Whereas, a bit more civilised society calls compromise with another name that is- “adjusting”. Turn around and you will see, people adjusting in their family, with their spouse, in a job, with their siblings or for a seat in metro. The one who adjusts or compromise is equated to be a kinder being. Those who dare to say “no” or take a stand for themselves are likely to be termed rude, selfish, manner less…..  …and much more.

The reason why there are so many molestation cases, which go unreported is because of the reason that we are trained to adjust, compromise and be quite. We are brought up under the belief that whatsoever an elder does is for our good. Therefore we should listen to them and adjust. A very well-known phrase goes something like this- “jo bde krte hain, aapke bhle ke liye krte hain”. It is because of this notion that we tend to confuse love with anger or any other bad intents of elders (some elders).
Never, by never I mean not even once in your life time should you compromise with yourself. Say “no” to what you do not agree to. Leave the job, which does not serve your passion or does not make you happy. Move out of a relationship, where you are not respected. Refuse to laugh on the jokes, which you do not find funny. Say when you are annoyed. Shout when you are happy. Cry loud whenever you do. Let you true emotions out. Stop thinking about what people will think of you. Because people do not think, they judge and then they forget it all after a while.

 I will never compromise with me.

The Puritan Age or The Age of Milton (1600-1660)

·         Broadly speaking, the puritan movement in literature may be considered as the second and greater renaissance, marked by the rebirth of the moral nature of man which followed the intellectual awakening of Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

·         The puritan movement stood for liberty of the people from the shackles of the despotic ruler as well as the introduction of morality and high ideals in politics.

·         Though during the restoration period the puritans began to be looked down upon as narrow- minded, gloomy dogmatists, who were against all sort of recreations and amusements, in fact they were not so. Moreover though they were profoundly religious, they did not form a separate religious sect. it would be great travesty of facts if we call Milton and Cromwell, who fought for liberty of the people against the tyrannical rule of Charles I, as narrow minded fanatics. They were real champions of liberty and stood for toleration.

·         Charles I was defeated and beheaded in 1649 and puritanism came out triumphant with the establishment of the commonwealth under Cromwell, severe laws were passed. Many simple mode of recreation and amusement were banned, and an austere standard of living was imposed on unwilling people. They are the same puritans who fought for liberty and justice, and who through self-discipline and austere way of living overthrew despotism and made the life and property of the people of England safe from the tyranny of the rulers.

·         There were no fixed literary standards, imitations of older poets and exaggeration of the ‘metaphysical’ poets replaced the original, dignified and highly imaginative compositions of the Elizabethan writers. The literary achievements of this so- called gloomy age are not of high order, but it had the honour of producing on solitary master of verse whose work would shed lustre on any age or people – john Milton (his Paradise lost), who was the noblest and indomitable representative of the puritan spirit to which he gave most lofty and enduring expression.

·         Poetry then was distinguished in three forms:

1.       Poetry of school of Spenser

2.       Poetry of metaphysical poets

3.       Poetry of cavaliers poets

·         Drama in puritan age decayed. Theatres were closed by the puritan in 1642, it died a natural death. (Opened after 18 years)

·         This period was rich in prose. Bacon, Burton, Milton, Sir Thomas Browne, Jeremy Tayler and Clarendon, all of them were great prose writers of their time. Also the art of biography, autobiography, diary and journal came into being along with prose writing.

·         Francis bacon (1561- 1628) belongs to both Elizabethan and Jacobean period.

The Renaissance Period (1500 - 1600) [part – II]

·         Drama was the main feature of the Elizabethan age. The second period of the Elizabethan drama was dominated by the “University of Wit’s”, a professional set of literary men. The style was heroic. The chief aim was to achieve strong and sounding lines. Of this little constellation, Marlowe was the central sun, and round him revolved as minor stars, Lyly, Green, Peele, lodge and Nash.

·         Christopher Marlowe (1564- 1593)

In 1587 his first play “Tamburlaine” was published. In this play Marlowe dramatized the exploits of the Scythian shepherd who rose to be “the terror of the world”, and “the scourge of god”. Tamburlaine was succeeded by the tragic history of doctor Faustus, in which Marlowe gave an old medieval legend a romantic setting. The story of the scholar who sells his soul to the devil for worldly enjoyment and unlimited power, is presented in a most fascinating manner. In “the Jew of Malta”, he raised the subject- matter of the drama to a higher level. He introduced heroes who were men of great strength and vitality, possessing the renaissance characteristic of insatiable spirit of adventure. He gave coherence, unity, beauty and dignity and poetic glow to the drama. In fact, he did the pioneering work on which Shakespeare built the grand edifice. Thus he has been rightly called “the father of English poetry”.

·         Another important feature of the age were Elizabethan sonnets. They were broadly divided into three categories: Petrarchan sonnets, Shakespearean sonnets and Spenserian sonnets.